Politics
Politics
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Politics is the process by which groups of people make decisions. The term is generally applied to behavior within civil governments, but politics has been observed in all human group interactions, including corporate, academic, and religious institutions.
Politics consists of “social relations involving authority or power”[1] and refers to the regulation of a political unit, [2] and to the methods and tactics used to formulate and apply policy.[3]
Political science (also political studies) is the study of political behavior and examines the acquisition and application of power. Related areas of study include political philosophy, which seeks a rationale for politics and an ethic of public behavior, and public administration, which examines the practices of governance.
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[edit] Key political concepts
[edit] Pragmatic view of power
Samuel Gompers‘ maxim, often paraphrased as,”Reward your friends and punish your enemies,”[4] hints at two of the five types of power recognized by social psychologists: incentive power (the power to reward) and coercive power (the power to punish). Arguably the other three grow out of these two:
Legitimate power, the power of the policeman or the referee, is the power given to an individual by a recognized authority to enforce standards of behavior. Legitimate power is similar to coercive power in that unacceptable behavior is punished by fine or penalty.
Referent power is bestowed upon individuals by virtue of accomplishment or attitude. Fulfillment of the desire to feel similar to a celebrity or a hero is the reward for obedience. This is an example of incentive power as one rewards oneself.
Expert power springs from education or experience. Following the lead of an expert is often rewarded with success. Note that expert power is conditional to circumstances (for example, if leaky pipes needs to be repaired, a brain surgeon’s advice probably would not carry as much weight as a plumber’s).
[edit] Authority and legitimacy
Authority, in a political sense, is different from political power in that it implies legitimacy and acceptance; it implies that the person or state exercising power has a perceived right to do so.[5] Legitimacy is an attribute of government gained through the acquisition and application of power in accordance with recognized or accepted standards or principles.
Max Weber identified three sources of legitimacy for authority, known as the tripartite classification of authority.[6] He proposed three reasons why people follow the orders of those who give them:
[edit] Traditional authority
Traditional authorities receive loyalty because they continue and support the preservation of existing values, the status quo. Weber called this “the authority of the eternal yesterday”.[6]Patriarchal (and more rarely matriarchal) societies gave rise to hereditary monarchies where authority was given to descendants of previous leaders. Followers submit to this authority because “we’ve always done it that way.” Examples of traditional authoritarians include absolute monarchs.
[edit] Charismatic authority
Charismatic authority grows out of the personal charm or the strength of an individual personality (see cult of personality for the most extreme version). Charismatic regimes are often short-lived, seldom outliving the charismatic figure that leads them. For a charismatic regime to survive the rule of the individual personality, it must transform its legitimacy into a different form of authority. An example of this would be Augustus‘ efforts to create the position of the Roman principate and establish a ruling dynasty, which could be viewed as a shift to a traditional form of authority, in the form of the principate that would exist in Rome for more than 400 years after his death.
[edit] Legal-rational authority
Legal-rational authorities receive their ability to compel behavior by virtue of the office that they hold. It is the authority that demands obedience to the office rather than the office holder; Weber identified “rationally-created rules”[6] as the central feature of this form of authority. Modern democracies are examples of legal-rational regimes. People also abide by legal-rational authority because it makes sense to do so for their own good, as well as for the greater good of society.[citation needed]
[edit] Sovereignty
Sovereignty is the ability of a government to exert control over its sphere of influence free from outside interference.
This is a brief snap picture of Kenya:
* Kenya was first populated by a number of small dispersed tribal groups, the main groups were the Kikuyu, Kamba, Luo and Masai. These tribes shared the same area of land although they all had different origins.
* It wasn’t until the 19th century that outsiders entered the interior of the country and as a result Kenya escaped the worst of the Arab slavers who concentrated more further to the south.
* The coast however helped to form an important part of a chain of Omani Arab trading posts. These strings of trading posts dealt mainly in ivory and slaves and were under the control of the Sultan of Zanzibar.
* The overshadowing of the Sultan’s powers started in the late 19th century when both British and German personnel obtained trading concessions along the coast.
* Britain was allotted what is now Uganda and Kenya; Germany was allotted what is now mainland Tanzania.
* In 1893 Uganda became a British protectorate closely followed by Kenya - 1895. The British were just interested in controlling the rich resources of Uganda and to facilitate this they built a railway between Mombasa and Kampala using labourers from India, many of whom remained and have become todays merchant class.
* At the turn of the century British attention was drawn away from Uganda and settled upon Kenya. White farmers went in and set up plantations producing export crops. During this process many Africans lost their land; they were then forced onto inferior land or onto the labour market as a result of hut taxes imposed by the colonial administration.
* By 1915 the majority of the fertile highlands were being used by the British and racial segregation of land effectively excluded Africans and Asians from owning properties there.
* Presently a large majority of the land is still owned by expatriate or politicians and the country’s employment problems are caused by the fact that there is limited access to the land and because only seven per cent of the total area receives enough rainfall to support agriculture.
* Some tribes remained virtually unaffected by the plantations.
* The pressure over land ownership and the controls over cultivation and marketing of cash crops by Africans prevented them from competing with the white settlers leading to the formation of nationalist organisations in the 1920’s.
* In 1929 one of the nationalist leaders Jomo Kenyatta was sent to England to negotiate on behalf of the Kikuyu Central Association.
* During World War 2, as a result of Africans being conscripted, political consciousness expanded. The consequence of this was the formation of guerrilla troops, Mau Mau, who all took an oath to commit themselves to expelling all white settlers in Kenya and to eliminate the Africans who cooperated with or benefited from colonial rule.
* In 1956 the Mau Mau rebellion was crushed, many people died also detention camps were set up and leaders of the Kenya African Union (KAU) were detained. The KAU was the successor to the Kikuyu Central Association, Dedan Kimathi the leader of the armed rebellion was executed.
* This rebellion shook both the colonial administration and white settlers. A state of emergency was declared and the restrictions on African cultivation were lifted. A lot of effort was applied to encouraging the formation of a stable middle class.
* In 1960 Britain agreed to have a conference with African leaders to discus the future of the colony The state of emergency was lifted. The Kenyan African Union reformed into the Kenyan African National Union (KANU) and Jomo Kenyatta turned from a feared leader of black nationalism into a grand old man of the settlers. He was released from prison and became the leader of the KANU.
* KANU won the elections in the following year and voted in favour of a parliamentary system as opposed to a federal system which was proposed by the party of the minority tribes.
* In 1963 independence was granted with Jomo Kenyatta as the country’s first president.
* In 1978 Kenyatta died. His ideas earned him many critics among them the vice-president Oginga Odinga who was part of an opposition party which was banned in 1966. Oginga Odinga was imprisoned, then he was released after agreeing to join the KANU. In 1969 Tom Mboya a powerful
member of Luo’s government was assassinated leading to racial riots between the Kikuyu and Luo.
* During the early 1970’s Kariuki became the principle opposition leader until 1975 when he was assassinated, the army and parliamentary police acted to restore order.
* Daniel Arap Moi took over from Kenyatta, he had an increasingly autocratic style and repression increased.
* Moi was successful in settling a dispute with Somalia over its borders and normalised relations with Tanzania.
* In 1982 a failed coup led by the Kenyan air force, led to the disbanding of the air force and the creation of a completely new unit.
* In 1990, following the assassination of the Kenyan foreign minister Robert Ouko who had threatened to reveal the names of corrupt ministers, major aid donors withdrew all support.
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Kenya Timeline
A time line overview of big and small events in the history of Kenya.
Prehistoric time
Some of our earliest human ancestors (Homo erectus and Homo habilis) walked on East African ground more than 2 million years ago. Several skulls and fragments has been found in Kenya and neighbouring countries.
The Khoisan-speakers are the first modern people known to inhabit East Africa. They are followed by Cushitic people (from north), Bantu speaking groups (from Central Africa), Nilotes (from Sudan) as well as Oromos and Somalis (from Ethiopia).
Arabian and Portuguese traders/invaders
8th century AD: The first visits by Arabian and Persian traders to East Africa are made. Some Arab traders stays in the region and brings a Muslim influence to the culture. Most areas of Kenya are inhabited at this time, but most trade and development takes place in the coastal region. Trade with ivory, rhino horn, gold, shells and slaves makes Mombasa, Malindi and the Islands Lamu, and Pate into important centres of trade.
The 15th century: The Coast is rich and the cities are great in this period. It becomes the first centre of trade out of Africa. The African groups on the coast gradually forms the Swahili culture adapting Islam as their religion. The common religion makes way for better understanding and business with the Arabs. Religious beliefs (Islam and later Christianity) also gives status in society (this can still be seen in the pride of many religious people in Africa). Some Africans may have turned to Islam simply to avoid being sold as slaves. The Swahili were mainly black Africans and it were these people who build the great cities along the coast.
The Swahili people makes a fortune on trade and forms business families. They are able to communicate better with the foreign traders as the Kiswahili language develops. They also serves as middlemen for those wanting to sell gold and Ivory from deep within the continent.
The trade net grows to cover Africa, Arabia, Persia, India and China. It is recorded that traders even succeeds to send a live Giraffe all the way the Emperor of China.
1498: Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama reaches East Africa with ships and guns. Until now most meetings with foreigners has been relative peaceful, but the Portuguese are eager to get their hands on the rich trade around the Indian Ocean. The Swahili people gives Vasco da Gama what he wants: They direct him on the way to India -and are happy to sea him leave. (See also Mozambique Timeline).
1505: The Portuguese invades, slaughters and robs most cities on the East Coast of Africa. Dom Francisco de Almeida arrives with 23 ships and approximately 1500 soldiers. Mombasa is bombed and the occupied by Portuguese troops.
The next 200 years are marked by the fights between the Arabs and the Portuguese for control of the region. The main losers in this long struggle are the Africans, seeing their towns destroyed all along the coast.
1585 and 1589: The Ottoman Turks tries to regain their power on the Kenyan Coast but are beaten by the Portuguese. Portugal starts a brutal colonial rule and exploitation of the Africans and their resources. With weapons in hand they try to convert people into Catholicism, but Islam has already grown strong on the coast.
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The Portuguese Fort Jesus in Mombasa. Photo: © Jacob Crawfurd. View more photos from Mombasa. |
1593: Mombasa becomes the local centre of Portuguese power. Fort Jesus is constructed in Mombasa harbour to defend the city from the seaside and also against a growing resistance among the Swahili people.
1698: Fort Jesus and Mombasa are finally lost to the Arabs after 33 months of siege. After a few years the Portuguese has left Kenya completely. Arab sultans now rules over different parts of the coast.
19th Century: The European countries starts a race of land grabbing in Africa. In East Africa it is mainly Germany and England competing in making colonies and protectorates. By now a political pressure has influenced Britain to try and stop the African slave trade.
1822: The Sultan of Oman (Sayyid Said) sends an army to East Africa. He claims control of all Swahili dynasties along the coast. The local Swahili clans resists to give up their power and asks Britain for help. Two warships are send from Britain and the captain declares the Mombasa region for British protectorate. The protectorate is given up after 3 years.
1832: The sultan of Oman moves with his court to Zanzibar. He starts plantations of cloves and develops trade routes deeper into Africa. Spice production and export of Ivory and slaves are an important economic injection for the Sultan’s empire.
1847: The first European missionaries starts traveling west and exploring more of Kenya. The Germans, Krapf and Rebmann, are the first to reach Taita Hills and later gives the first reports of seeing Mount Kilimanjaro and Mount Kenya.
May 1, 1873 : Dr. David Livingstone dies in Central Africa. His body is carried on a month-long journey to Zanzibar.
1877: the Sultan offers the company British East Africa a concession of administration in East Africa. The British completely ignores the Swahili people -only negotiating with the Sultan on Zanzibar. Their racist prejudices makes them believe that the East African Coast has only developed because of the Arabs.
British Crown Colony
1886: The European colonial powers divides Africa between them at a conference in Berlin. Germany and Britain are the main players in the game of control with East Africa. The Sultan of Oman is still granted a strip on the Coastline.
1888: Imperial British East Africa starts “economic development” in their possessions (today’s Kenya and Uganda).
1894: Jomo Kenyatta is born in Ichaweri.
1895: Britain’s protectorate is formed and officially named British East Africa.
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 J H Patterson: The Man-eaters of Tsavo US order | European order |
1898: Construction of a railway from Mombasa to Lake Victoria is progressing fast, but delayed in Tsavo. Two lions kills and eats 135 Indian and African railway workers. Lt. Col. J.H. Patterson manages to kill the lions after hunting them for nine months. The events were dramatised in the film The Ghost and The Darkness. The man-eating lions are still on display in The Field Museum, Chicago.
1898: The railway reaches half way through Kenya. The city of Nairobi is founded a few years later.
1901: The railway from Mombasa to Kisumu is completed with its 965 km. European and Indian settlers now arrives in great numbers to East Africa. White settlers are favoured from the beginning and given influence on the management of the colony. The African inhabitants of the “White highlands” are forced into “native reserves”. In the following years several local uprisings are stopped by British soldiers. As in the other African colonies some tribes are favoured by the British. This makes the foundation for jealousy, hatred and ethnic clashes for generations ahead.
1902: The border between Kenya and Uganda is adjusted. Before this Kisumu and the area around Lake Victoria was a part of Uganda.
1905: First experiments with growing coffee in Kenya are made by British settlers. Today Kenya is the African country exporting most coffee.
1907: The British colonial administration moves from Mombasa to Nairobi.
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View to Ngong Hills from the Blixen farm. More photos from Nairobi Highlands. Photo: © Jacob Crawfurd. |
January 1914: 28 year old Karen Blixen (also known as Isak Dinesen) arrives in Kenya with her husband Bror Blixen. They settle on a farm close to Nairobi and starts growing coffee. Karen Blixen has no experience and no success with farming but after returning to Denmark in 1931 she becomes a well known writer.
1914: World War I also includes Africa. 200,000 Africans are recruited in Kenya by the British Army. One fourth of them dies.
1915: The British settlers requires more land. Another 5186 hectares are taken from the Africans. The “Registration Act” forces all African adult males to carry identification whenever leaving the reserves.
1921: The protectorate becomes Kenya and gets status of British Crown Colony. A British governor administrates the colony.
1922: Foundation of East African Breweries (today: Kenya Breweries, producing the popular “Tusker” and other brands).
1922: Africans educated in the Missions starts protesting against the British policies. Harry Thuku, leader of the East African Association (EAA) is arrested. Another young Kikuyu from EAA is about to begin his career: Jomo Kenyatta leaves for university Studies in England (1931) and returns to become a political leader years later.
1923: The first tea plantation is founded in Kenya. A law ensured that only the European settlers could profit from growing tea and coffee for export.
1924 : Daniel Arap Moi is born in Baringo.
1933: American writer Ernest Hemingway visits Kenya and writes some of his most famous stories.
1939: Labour unions are becoming stronger in the colony. Strikes hits hard on Mombasa.
1944: A organisation for African independence is formed: Kenyan African Union (KAU).
1947: Jomo Kenyatta becomes leader of KAU.
Mau Mau rebellion
1952: A political Kikuyu group called “Mau Mau” starts violent attacks on white settlers. The Mau Mau guerillas are organised in Kenya Land Freedom Army (KFLA). Jomo Kenyatta is regarded to be leader of the “Mau Mau” and he is jailed the following year. The Mau Mau rebellion continues and Britain declares a state of emergency in Kenya.
February 6, 1952: The young Elizabeth stays in the Aberdare Treetop Hotel when her father, King George VI, dies of cancer. She returns to England as Queen Elizabeth II.
October 1956: The leader of KLFA, general Dedan Kimanthi is captured by British troops with assistance from a loyal Kikuyu group. The Mau Mau are now without efficient leadership.
1956: The Mau Mau warriors kills more Africans loyal to the British than white people. Around 50,000 British soldiers are set in against the rebellion. They burn down villages and carry out bomb attacks from airplanes. When the rebellion is finally put down a total of app. 12,000 Africans are killed -and only about 30 Europeans. 100,000 Africans are imprisoned.
1957: Dedan Kimanthi is executed.
195?: Kenyan songwriter Fadhili William records the pop song Malaika. The song becomes a world-wide hit and as has since been recorded by several other artists.
1957: Ghana is the first African colony to gain independence. (See also Ghana Timeline)
1959: Kenyatta is transferred from jail to house arrest. Formation of political parties are now allowed and African politicians are invited for negotiations in London.
1960: Britain gives in to the pressure and starts preparing Kenya for independence. Estimated 60,000 Europeans now live in Kenya.
1960: A team of archaeologists led by Mary and Louis Leakey finds a skull of Homo Habilis near Lake Turkana in Northern Kenya. The skull is estimated to be 1.8 million years old.
1961: House arrest ends for Kenyatta and he becomes leader of the political party KANU.
Independence
December 12, 1963: : Kenyan independence day.
1964: The Republic of Kenya (Jamhuri ya Kenya) is formed with Kenyatta as president and Oginga Odinga as vice president. The party KADU dissolves and integrates with KANU. The government is without opposition.
1966: The Luo politician Oginga Odinga is excluded from the Kikuyu dominated KANU party. He tries to start an opposition party, but is arrested several times during the following years.
1969: Conflicts between ethnic groups continue. The Luo politician Tom Mboya aspires to future presidency and is assassinated by a Kikuyu. Odinga is arrested.
1974: Jomo Kenyatta is re-elected as president. Kiswahili becomes official language in the parliament.
1976: Border problems and regional tensions: The Ugandan dictator Idi Amin claims huge parts of Kenya and Sudan.
1977: Big game hunting becomes prohibited by law.
August 22, 1978: Jomo Kenyatta dies in his home in Mombasa. During his presidency Kenya has become one of the most stable and prosperous countries in Africa. In spite of mistakes and some degree of paranoia, Kenyatta was loved by most Kenyans and respected by politicians abroad. The Republic of Kenya held many promises which were soon to fade.
Kenya’s second president
October 6, 1978: Daniel Toroitich Arap Moi becomes president of Kenya. At the time he is not seen as a very strong politician, but he was vice president for Kenyatta and the parliament agrees on the choice. This is partly because as a Kalenjin (Tugen) he is not representing any of the dominant tribes in Kenya. The new national slogan launched by Moi is “nyayo” -follow the tracks. But soon Moi starts hitting hard on opponents, banning tribal societies and closing universities. The president makes more and more frequent use of prisons and guns in the coming years.
1979: The president launches a plan for protection of Rhinos in Kenya.
June 1982: The Republic of Kenya is officially declared to be a one party state by ruling party KANU.
August 1982: The Kenyan Airforce attempts a military coup. A few days pass in uncertainty and 120 people are killed. Then forces loyal to the government puts an end to the rebellion. Following the coup-attempt, 12 people are sentenced to death and 900 are jailed.
1985: Hollywood premieres Out Of Africa filmed on location in Kenya, starring Meryl Streep and Robert Redford.
1987: President Moi is re-elected after introducing a complicated and highly criticised voting system. Opposition leaders including Kenneth Matiba are jailed without trial.
1989: Paleontologist Dr. Richard Leakey becomes manager of the Department of Wildlife in Kenya. President Moi burns of 12 tons of ivory, making a public statement against poaching.
1990’s: Communist regimes in eastern Europe collapses, putting an end to “the Cold War” era. USA and Western Europe has supported corrupt regimes all over Africa in their attempt to keep communism from the door. But now they loose interest in the continent. For the first time donor countries makes demands of democratic development and puts pressure on the Kenyan government. Multiparty systems are a public demand all over the continent and the governments no longer has Western support to suppress the opposition.
The KANU Youth group is used as pro-government troublemakers. In the following years KANU Youth are used to harass opposition members and provoke riots in democratic demonstrations. The KANU Youth has also been involved in the unleash of violence and ignition of ethnic clashes.
July 7, 1990: An illegal demonstration becomes known as the “Saba Saba” (Seven Seven - the date in Swahili). The government sends in police and military, killing at least 20 and arresting several hundreds, including politicians, human rights activists and journalists.
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The skyline of Nairobi photographed by Jacob Crawfurd in 1997. View more photos from Nairobi. |
1991: A new opposition party is formed under the name Forum for the Restoration of Democracy (FORD). The party is at first banned by Moi. Leaders, including Oginga Odinga, are arrested. Most Western countries suspends their economic aid to Kenya in condemnation of the political oppression and abuses of human rights. Moi finally gives in and introduces the multiparty system in Kenya: The constitution is changed, for the first time allowing registration of opposition parties.
Political violence on the road to democracy
1992: Political discussions slowly becomes more common on the streets and some people even dare to hope for a change. But at the same time many people fears the wars, violence and chaos in other African countries. An argument often heard is that Moi may be one the most corrupt leaders in the world, but he has kept Kenya peaceful.
Prior to elections, 2000 are killed in ethnic clashes in the Rift Valley region. It is almost certain that the violence was provoked by KANU. But President Moi manages to end the conflict and makes himself an image as the peace maker.
1992: The Ford party splits into two fractions. Moi gains more power as the opposition waste their efforts on internal conflicts.
December 29, 1992: Moi is re-elected as President in Kenya’s first multiparty election. All foreign observers reports that KANU manipulated the voters and election in every possible way.
1993: International donors, IMF and the World Bank forces the government to start economic reforms in Kenya.
1994: Oginga Odinga dies. The opposition parties form a new coalition, but are still having strong internal disputes. Moi is becoming more and more clever in setting up opposition members against each other.
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| “We want to see our president”. A group of Masais demonstrates near Nakuru in 1995. Photo: Jacob Crawfurd. |
1995: Paleontologist Richard Leakey forms Safina, a new opposition party. The Leakey family is famous for their archaeological findings in Kenya. Moi argues strongly against having white men in government.
1996: KANU announces a wish to change the constitution allowing Moi to stay in office for one more term.
1997: Demonstrations for democracy are frequent in Kenya.
August 14, 1997: 200 raiders attacks the police station in Likoni, Mombasa. Prisoners are freed, six police officers and seven civilians are killed. The violent attackers steels rifles and ammunition. In the following weeks horror rules on the coast with massacres and ethnic violence. Many people are on the run. Who started this, and why was nothing done to stop it?
1997: Daniel Arap Moi wins his 5th term as president in criticised elections. Once again Moi has succeeded to play opposition and ethnic groups against each other.
1997: The El Nino weather phenomena brings cascades of water to the Kenyan coast. Several thousands are left homeless.
September 8, 1997: President Mobuto Sese Seko of Zaire (D. R. Congo) loses his power and dies soon after. Mobuto was considered to be the richest man in Africa. According to an Ugandan newspaper, Daniel Arap Moi is a possible number two. (The Monitor, August 4, 1997)
August 1998: 230 people are killed when a bomb explodes in Nairobi’s US embassy. At the same time people are killed by a terror bombing in Tanzania. The bombings are later linked to Osama Bin-Laden and the Al-Qaeda terrorist network.
1999: Richard Leakey becomes minister in the KANU government. He is tasked with fighting corruption in Kenya.
June 2001: Moi forms the first coalition government in Kenya. Opposition leader Raila Odinga becomes minister of Energy.
August 2001: 3 million people starves as Northern Kenya suffers from drought.
2001: Several anti-corruption initiatives are started in order to please the IMF.
October 2001: Uhuru Kenyatta (son of Jomo Kenyatta) is appointed to parliament and a cabinet post by President Moi. The inexperienced Uhuru Kenyatta is later appointed by Moi to be his successor in the presidential office.
2001: Ethnic clashes breaks out again. Worst in the Kibera slum area of Nairobi. As the violence continues the government stays passive. Some people fears that Moi would like to see chaos break out in Kenya after he gives up presidency.
The third president
December 27, 2002: Election in Kenya. Moi is leaving the office to opposition leader Mwai Kibaki.
Kibaki soon announces that Kenya will provide free primary schooling for all children.
Another important law from Kibaki is new rules for Matatu-owners. The matatus are privately-owned mini-busses. They are loud and colourful contributions to Kenyan culture, but also notorius for their high rate of accidents (more than 3,000 dies in road accidents every year). The new laws are made to improve traffic security, but the matatu owners have protested and paralysed the country with strikes and new high fares.